Monday, January 27, 2020
Customary International Law
Customary International Law The concept of â€Å"international law†has fuelled academic debate regarding its interpretation, parameters and whether it in fact hinders measures to maintain international order, by virtue of the fact that there is a dichotomy between theory and the reality of the formation of customary international law as suggested by the above statement. Indeed it has been commented that the â€Å"demise of custom as a source of international law has been widely forecasted because both the nature and the relative importance of customs constituent elements are contentious†. Conversely, it has been propounded that customary international law is nevertheless significant as a source of law particularly in the international human rights arena. For example, the codification of conventions, and case law of the International Court of Justice (IJC) have been cited as contributing to the â€Å"resurrection†of customary international law. However, notwithstanding the theoretical importance of international law making in areas such as human rights and as a check on autocratic power, these measures are only as effective as their practical enforceability, which some commentators have challenged in light of competing political interests at international level, which will be the focus of this analysis. Hedley Bull described international law as a â€Å"body of rules which binds states and other agents in world politics in their relations with one another and is considered to have the status of law†. However, many commentators have questioned whether this theoretical ideal of â€Å"international law making†is actually reflected in fact by â€Å"the existence of any set of rules governing interstate relations, secondly, its entitlement to be called â€Å"law†and, thirdly, its effectiveness in controlling states in â€Å"real life†situations†. Notwithstanding the contention as to whether the term â€Å"law†is applicable to the social contract in the international arena, it is argued that there are in force some general principles of law â€Å"which states regard as binding on one another†. For example, the fundamental principles governing international relations include the right to self-determination of peoples, prohibition of the threat or use of force, peaceful settlement of disputes and respect for human rights, international cooperation and good faith. As such, Antonio Cassesse observes that: â€Å"The principles at issue possess tremendous importance, for they represent the only set standards on which States are not fundamentally divided. They constitute the core â€Å"rules of the game†on which all States basically agree and which allow a modicum of relatively smooth international relations†. However, Cassesse statements, whilst undoubtedly justified on the basis of member state commitment as signatories to international treaties and conventions, ignore the conflicts creates by the law making process which arguably make â€Å"little more than a manifestation of divisions in power between states of different political and economic importance,†which is further compounded by the conflict between the sources of international law under customary law and various treaties and charters. Indeed Anthony Carty observes that there is in no complete system of international law to provide resolutions to disputes in contemporary international relations. Cartys assertions are rooted in the premise that states continue to operate as â€Å"states of nature†, with no unequivocal demarcation of rights under international law, further compounded by ad hoc, unilateral interpretation by member states. Moreover, the lack of a cohesive international legal system evidenced by inconsistencies in concepts of customary law results in a â€Å"clash between international law and measures deemed necessary to maintain a balance of power†. This is particularly evidenced by the law relating to legitimate use of force in the international arena. The 1945 United Nations Charter (the Charter), which is considered to be a source of international law, was implemented to address the post Second World War concerns of preventing repeat atrocities. The preamble to the Charter asserted its primary objective as â€Å"saving succeeding generations from the scourge of war†and implementing a framework to facilitate peaceful dispute resolution in international relations. Furthermore, the Charter imposed a prohibition on the use of unilateral force by member states, which was viewed as a radical measure in international law making. However, the theoretical milestone in international law has been cited by some as a false dawn, compounded by the continued uncertainty as to the boundaries of Article 2(4) in practice, leading to Dixon to question its efficacy as a protectionist measure. Moreover, Reisman has argued that in any event, â€Å"Article 2(4) was never an independent ethical imperative of pacifism†. This is further supported by the proviso that â€Å"unilateral force must not be inconsistent with the Purposes of the United Nations†, which is further compounded by conflicting right of member states to self defence under Article 51 of the Charter. The intrinsic uncertainty facilitated by the drafting of Article 2(4) creates scope for discretion by the reference to â€Å"purpose of the United Nations†. As such, the Charter effectively grants scope for member state unilateral interpretation, whilst simultaneously justifying any use of force as complying with the â€Å"purpose†of the United Nations. Furthermore, the continuation of post holocaust conflicts question the efficacy of Article 2(4) as a protection mechanism on illegitimate force in international conflict, thereby facilitating scope for potential abuse of political and economic objectives without effective sanction, further bolstered by the Article 51 right to self defence. Moreover, notwithstanding the objectives of the ICJ, in practice its decisions have been criticised for lacking consistency, highlighting the problem of after the event decisions to determine whether force used was legal. The role of the SC in having the power to â€Å"determine the existence of any threat to the peace, breach of peace, or act of aggression†and implement measures that may include force, has been further utilised as highlighting the dichotomy between theory and practice in international law making. The machinations of the SC are intricate, with many arguing that powerful member states within the SC create an imbalance of power in using the SC to further their political desires. This is further compounded by the fact that states which are not signatories to the UN fall outside the jurisdiction of SC decisions and are subject to convoluted principles of international customary law. As such, this creates scope for selective enforcement of international law, compounded by the conflict between applicability of Charter principles and established principles of customary law, which is inherently problematic in practice. Whilst Dixon and McCorquodale argue that some principles of customary law apply irrespective of the Charter provisions, other commentators assert that the Charter â€Å"heralded a new beginning†, thereby limiting the scope of customary law in this context. This conflict between Charter and customary law in the context of legitimate force is a breeding ground for abuse, enabling furtherance of political goals by exploiting the uncertainty. For example, in the case of Nicaragua v USA, the ICJ stated that the Charter right to self defence was derived from customary law and that the SC had final veto over what constituted legitimate self defence. MacClean suggests that this decision suggests that the Charter supersedes customary law, which in the absence of any binding definition of â€Å"armed attack†or what constitutes justifiable self defence, enables international law to effectively be used to legitimise potential abuses of power with extreme uses of force as self defence, shrouded in the veil of accountability by ad hoc decisions of the ICJ after the event. A prime example of this is the ICJ opinion as to â€Å"whether the threat or use of nuclear weapons in any circumstances is permitted under international law†. The ICJ skated around the issue, repeating the prohibition on use of force contrary to Article 2(4) of the Charter and customary law, yet failed to expressly determine whether a preemptive nuclear attack would be unlawful. This clearly creates potential for abuse in the absence of any coherent guidelines, which is further evidenced by the crime of aggression, which has remained controversial as a legal concept in international law, often criticised for being â€Å"intertwined with political elements†. The implementation of the Rome Statute, UN Charter and International Criminal Court was hailed as a historical milestone for protection of human rights against aggression in the international arena. However, in order for any crime of aggression to be effective, it is vital to define what constitutes an act of aggression. However, member states have consistently bypassed implementing a binding definition of what constitutes an act of aggression since the UN Charter was introduced, thereby indicating a distinct gap between theory and the reality of formation of customary law. Furthermore, the lack of binding definition is perpetuated by the lack of delineation between state and individual liability and what is meant by the term â€Å"individual†for the purpose of establishing state liability. Article 39 of the Charter addresses crimes of aggression by the state and not individuals and therefore failure to define â€Å"act of the individual†clearly undermines the theoretical purpose of the crime of aggression as a check on autocratic power. The mechanics of war are inherently complex and the notion of excessive force will clearly vary from one state to another. This in itself highlights the gap between theory and formation of customary law on the international plane, as the problem of having any absolute legal framework will intrinsically be unable to account for the complexities of war at international level. Furthermore, the limited nature of a binding definitive framework also lends itself to exploitation by member states intended to serve their political and economic motivations. This is further limited by the fact that in aggression, the leadership requirement for establishing liability is inherently restricted by the practical difficulty faced by member states in bringing leaders of their state to account, again highlighting the gap between theory and practice. This was evidenced in the case of R v Jones where the House of Lords rejected the appellants claim that the Iraq war constituted an illegal act of aggression under the Charter. In rejecting the appeal, Lord Bingham asserted that â€Å"the crime of aggression is not a crime in the domestic law of England and Wales†. The judicial rationale in the Jones case was rooted in the notion that floodgate claims facilitating anarchy would result from enabling such a claim. Moreover, Lord Bingham stated that the international law crime of aggression was not a crime under national law and that it was â€Å"not for judges to decide what conduct should be treated as lying so far outside the bounds of what is acceptable in our society so as to attract criminal penalties.†This dictum again highlights the dichotomy between theory and law, which in itself lends itself to the use of international law as a tool in furthering political and social power. The Jones decision further begs the question as to the usefulness of the Charter in practice if the crime of aggression under international law is claimed to be unenforceable at national level due to national courts asserting lack of jurisdiction. Moreover, the Charter expressly grants a power of veto to the Security Council (SC) to determine what constitutes an act of aggression. Article 39 of the Charter enables the SC to make recommendations and decide what punitive measures shall be imposed to maintain or restore peace. Notwithstanding the attempts of UN Resolution 3314 to move towards a binding definition of aggression, the debates preceding the Resolution led to compromise in order to appease political disagreements and facilitate amity amongst member states. As such, ambiguous wording remained, compounding the continued uncertainty as to what actually constitutes an act of aggression. Additionally, it has been observed that certain UN member states are clearly more influential, which creates the contradictory situation whereby decisions left to be determined by the SC could potentially result in selective enforcement of international law with some states being subject to harsh measures to restore peace, whilst turning a blind eye to others. This undermines the purpose of the Charter and equality of the rule of law, with the ironic result that those in power can evade accountability. For example, Megret argues that the deficiency in the international law concepts of aggression have enabled the Bush administration to evolve ad hoc concepts of self defence justified as being necessary in the war on terror, thereby compromising the rule of law. In conclusion, the historical importance of the development of international law making through customary principles and various treaties cannot be ignored. However, the theoretical ideal is significantly undermined by gaps between theory and enforcement in practice, which is particularly evidenced in the law of aggression and use of force by the lack of consistent rules and purposeful ambiguity in Charter provisions intended to assuage political conflict and promote member state agreement. However, this has resulted in ad hoc decision making in the international arena often after the event, which undermines the purpose of international law as an effective mechanism to resolve international conflict and protect human rights abuses. Moreover, the inherent ambiguity and lack of precedent has arguably enabled powerful states to use international law to legitimise excessive force, further compounded by the conflict between customary law and the Charter in this context. As such, measures need to be taken to clarify a coherent legal framework with effective sanction if international law makers are to render member states subject to the rule of law in practice. Only then can international law making be â€Å"more than a manifestation of divisions in power between states of different political and economic importance†.
Sunday, January 19, 2020
Human Motivation Essay
On page 227 of your text you will find Figure 8-6. Provide two scenarios for two different hypothetical people showing the two possible outcomes, two possible paths for the same frustrated need. Summarize the two, comparing and contrasting the experiences in the scenarios. Create a box table for each with summaries for each. Then, provide, in paragraph format, an explicit explanation of similarities and differences. Each table should have two explanations along with descriptions and references to your text and/or other readings. Cite all references following correct APA style (5th edition).            In explaining the behavior of people, we start our description with reference to some kind of active driving force: the individual seeks, the individual wants, the individual fears. Various psychologists describe motivation, in other words, as the driving force behind our behavior (Atkinson, et al. 1983). Smith, et al. labels their discussion on motivation as the â€Å"Why†of behavior (1982). Why does the tardy student in mathematics spend the rest of the period outside instead of inside the mathematics classroom? Emotions or strong feelings usually accompany motivated behavior. Often, emotions direct behavior toward goals (Atkinson, et al. 1983). This paper briefly describes and explains the origin/causes, and distinction of motivation and different scenarios linking motivation and other concepts.            Motives, according to Marx, originate either from a biological or a physiological source, or from an environmental influence. A motive may arise from a biological need for food or water which will drive an individual to seek food when hungry or drink when thirsty. The tissues of the human body need these to function continuously. It will cease to live without sufficient nourishment. The hormonal substances in the blood which activate certain parts of the nervous system are other biological sources, for instance, the sex drive which is due to the presence of hormones secreted by the reproductive glands, the ovaries (in the female), and the testes present in the male (1976).            Moreover, motives may also be caused by environmental influence. We react strongly to social acceptance so we want to acquire an appliance or any other thing that we see in others especially if we can afford them. Companies offering high salaries attract employees from other firms that give low wages (Atkinson, et al. 1983).            A predominant view is that human motivation comes from either a small number of basic urges or even one basic urge and that all aspire for family prestige, social status, and security (Morris and Maisto, 1999, p. 315). ~Internal and External Classification of Motivation            Psychology recognizes different perspectives of motivation. One of these viewpoints pertains to the idea of â€Å"motivational inducements,†otherwise known as incentives. Incentives are referenced from either the vantage point of internal, or that of external motivation. An inducement coming from within the individual is called intrinsic or internal motivation. It is, according to Morris and Maisto, about the â€Å". . . desire to perform a behavior that originates within the individual.†An inducement coming from outside the individual is called external or extrinsic motivation. It is the aspiration to do or achieve a goal in order to acquire a type of incentives or escape or steer clear of punishment (Morris and Maisto, 1999, p.316). Children are often induced by the presence of external incentives to perform expected tasks or avoid incurring punishment. For motivation experts, however, a person developing the internal type of motivation will reap more lasting and beneficial effects compared with external motivation (1999). To induce a child to do what the parents ask for by way of rewards or threats are at times less constructive or even detrimental to the overall performance of the person or child. Fear is a strong component of human motivation. Explain the numerous roles of fear in both positive and negative impact situations on human motivation you have studied this term. Be specific and cite all references in correct APA style (5th edition). Create real-life examples for each role of fear to support your position(s). Develop your scenarios to include the application of theory. Thoroughly develop your scenario.            Fear is defined as â€Å"a distressing emotion aroused by impending danger, evil or pain; a specific instance of or propensity for fear; concern or anxiety, solicitude†(Random House Webster’s Dictionary, 4th Ed.). Where fear is concerned, though it is deemed as a negative emotional state by many, life will become unreal. This paper will try to explain why fear is essential to an individual’s healthy outlook. Weighing on the polarities of this particular affect, one will see the necessity of this kind of emotion which is processed by the body’s amygdala. Although social psychology literature is extensive, there are yet inconclusive evidences as to how fear actually work towards its positive effect. Volumes of literature attest to both positive and negative effects of fear especially in its role to convince. Because of this, it is very important that one examines the specific instances where fear can be said to be effective in positive manner as well as in a negative way. The following scenarios will, at the least, illustrate where fear is helpful, and where it is detrimental or destructive.            In the study of anti-nuclear recruiting to raise concern on a possible nuclear holocaust, it is said that the matter about nuclear use is so prevalent these days that common people, when presented with the threat of its use, tend to shrug off the idea and need to be convinced of the danger it poses (Sandman & Valenti, 1986). Why the indifference? Inspite of the campaigns of nuclear â€Å"Armageddon,†the majority of people still seemed to be apathetic about any threat at all. Perhaps, according to studies, people already get beyond fear to numbness. In the study by Sandman and Valenti, the authors said that this has something to do with what they termed as â€Å"likely occurrence†versus â€Å"horrible consequence.†They cited as an example the success of drunken driving campaigns due to the likelihood of losing one’s driver’s license rather than losing a life (which is an instance of horrible consequence). How is this so? These authors said that to terrify a person who is already afraid will be of no use to that person. The likelihood of a horrible consequence, probably to most people, is not that immediate. The common response is apathy. So the best approach to this situation according to Sandman and Valenti is reassurance-the reinforcement of what they call the four â€Å"antidotes†namely, â€Å"anger, hope, love and action.†This implies simply that fear in this instance is negative in effect. Fear has to be reduced when it comes to scenarios like recruiting people to take up commitment and/or advocacy towards certain important matters of concern like the threat of nuclear war. To sustain the cause, the four aforementioned agenda will be the likely steps taken rather than inducing fear or â€Å"terrorizing the terrorized with more terror†(Sandman & Valenti, 1986).            It is also maintained that fear is indispensable and a fact of life. If truth be told, more often, studies would show its efficacy in persuading people to action or to some to change their minds on something or someone. This happens to political campaigns where some PR managers become household names also due to their ability to introduce a virtually unknown person and catapult them to notoriety. This may entail a positive or negative implication, depending on the perceptions of people and the motives or machinations of those wanting to be in the limelight. How will fear appeal be very effective and its use in persuasive communication be ethically and morally right or justified? Here is a scenario: a certain school whose graduating class of 29 students filed a complaint on one of its faculty, citing misconduct unbecoming of someone in authority on the basis of corruption. They submitted a detailed account of what transpired during a semester with this certain professor in their department. When confronted with the dean regarding the response made by the professor, and the possibility of court cases filed against the whole class, the students decided to make a retraction of their complaints. Their lame excuse was that given their naà ¯vetà © or inexperience, the college and the authorities (including the accused professor) then investigating them, should look into the charges they made against the professor as mere questions in need of answers and not as accusatory gestures that are morally and professionally damaging to the concerned professor. They have decided to retract, corporately, because their adviser enlightened them of the repercussions of their written complaint (i.e., possible non-graduation, and a host of other possible consequences). This is a picture of an effective fear appeal. Their retraction did not mean they have changed their prejudiced mind against the professor, rather, their immediate concern is their graduation which is barely two months away, and the possibility of a smeared reputation when time comes they will be applying for work. This illustration gives an example of the kind of fear appeal where the Stage model (Das, 2001) is applied. The students in the illustration responded to this appeal positively, although it was only short term. They responded positively because they had their graduation in mind which is upcoming.            As Enny Das states it, human beings act the way they do because of underlying motivations (Das, 2001). Fear is an important factor in the way people act and decide. In the first scenario, fear is portrayed as negative in effect to certain cases such as anti nuclear campaigns recruitment. According to social scientists, there are behavioral and attitudinal changes that work temporarily and others permanently or in a considerable length of time. Where the first scenario is concerned, advocates for the awareness of anti-nuclear holocaust and recruitment of activists for their cause have this problem before them: how to convince people from their â€Å"numbness†to action and stay on with it. As Sandman and Valenti proposed it, the procedures they advocated, instead of high dose of fear, a good measure of reassurance based on anger, love, hope and action, (â€Å"4 antidotes of numbness†) should be followed (Sandman, Valenti, 1986). This makes sense according to the Dual-process model, where it is â€Å"postulated that systematic processing of a persuasive message will result in more stable attitudes, intentions, and behavior†(Das, 2001). However, people should perceive a certain degree of possible threat/danger if they are to process the information systematically and hence, maintain a long term coping of that threat/danger.            The second scenario is best explained based on the Stage model of fear appeals. It assumes that individuals process the information on a â€Å"heuristic processing of subsequently presented recommendation†which is predictably less lasting in a period of time (Das, 2001). Considering that the second scenario, referring to their decision to retract from their complaints only because of an impending graduation which is threatened by the case they filed on the alleged professor, is actually a very unstable decision, and understandably will only weaken in the passing of time (Das, 2001).            The study of fear and its effects continue to arrest curiosity and interest as well as confusion. There needs to be more studies to discover how the occurrence of attitude and behavioral changes where fear appeals are concerned, affects decision making whether positively, to the advantage of the individual, or negatively, to the detriment or disadvantages of the one paralyzed by fear. It is assumed that scenarios like these will continue to attract both enthusiasts and experts alike in the study of behavior. Explain the role of learning in human motivation. Provide at least three (3) examples that specifically tie learning to human motivation and the reduction of stress, improved happiness, and self-esteem. (Three separate scenarios.) Your explanation should be well developed and the examples should be specific. Cite all references in correct APA style (5th edition).            Motivation is behind every behavior. The principle of cause-effect is apparent in the study of motivation and behavior: motivation is the cause or the â€Å"why†, and behavior is the effect. Thus it is motivation that gives direction and thrust to our behavior. Without motivation, behavior may not occur (Halonen and Santrock, 1999).            A common family friend one day told me she wanted my advice, whether she’ll break up with her boyfriend or stay on with him and wait for him to change. Her problem was that whenever they disagree or fight, her boyfriend (we’ll call him â€Å"Raymond†) ends up pinching her to the point that he was actually physically hurting her. It is something very interesting to think about because of all things that a man would do to his sweetheart, pinching her seems strange and extraordinary. I couldn’t help asking her why â€Å"Raymond†is that way. What are the forces behind this seemingly love and hate relationship? What drives Raymond to do this precise act towards his girlfriend? Did he learn it or is it innate?            Psychology seeks to understand human behavior with the following 4 or 5 goals in mind. These are description, explanation, prediction, control, and improvement (Atkinson et al, 2000). Analyzing the given scenario with my friend, I just was able to describe the event and the occasions that led him to do it. However, it does not suffice to say that just because he is hurt in some ways by his girlfriend that he would resort to doing such a thing as pinching. It would be a lot clearer if we start to examine his behavior in the light of possible reasons basing on the need theory and the learning theory (Halonen and Santrock, 1999). 1.     Need Theory –            A need is defined as a specific state within the organism that may activate behavior to satisfy the need; they are often related to the depletion of essential body substances; a state or condition which indicates the lack or something vital or desired which the organism will strive to obtain; it can also mean the existence of an unpleasant condition, which has to be relieved or eliminated.            In the case of â€Å"Raymond,†his pinching behavior can be interpreted as his way of relieving or eliminating an unpleasant feeling or condition (i.e. he has anger management problem that he couldn’t guide his emotions to a more benign and less destructive manner), that unless he gets it off his system, a more violent reaction might occur, so the pinching is for him so minor, that he can do it anytime to his girlfriend. Usually, in cases like Raymond’s behavior, the individual does not possess the skills in channeling strong and powerful emotions and communicating such in the right manner. 2.     Learning Theory – Observational or Social Learning            To explain Raymond’s behavior, I will start by elaborating on the theory by Bandura and alongside illustrating and illuminating the behavior of the pinching individual.            Social learning theorist Albert Bandura has run experiments that show we acquire operants by observing the behavior of others. We may need some practice to refine the skills we acquire by observation. We may choose to allow these skills to lie latent. For example, we may not imitate aggressive behavior unless we are provoked and believe that we are more likely to be rewarded than punished for it. Observational learning may account for most human learning. It is not mechanically acquired through reinforcement. We can learn by observation without engaging in overt responses at all. It appears sufficient to pay attention to the behavior of others. To explain how this occurs, Bandura suggests that four mental processes must be in operation; these processes are necessary for observation learning (Bandura, 1986).            â€Å"Attention.†The observer must pay attention to what the model says or does. In all likelihood, â€Å"Raymond†may have spent his younger days in the hands and example of a mother who actually specifically would pinch him whenever he misbehaves. Probably, those years were for him troublesome, knowing that a mother oftentimes displays this behavior or act out of sheer frustration, at times not because the child actually misbehaves. He was probably doing what every normal child would do that time. His mother could have been laden with so many things to do and lacked the patience or time to understand the needs of her children (Bandura, 1986).            â€Å"Memory.†The observer must store or remember the information so that it can be retrieved and used later. In Raymond’s case, because he practically grew up in the â€Å"apron strings†of his mother, it’s not surprising that he would manifest many characteristics of his mother. Raymond’s memory would necessarily be traced back to the years he had experienced under her (Bandura, 1986).            â€Å"Imitation.†The observer must be able to use the remembered information to guide his or her own actions and thus imitate the model’s behavior. Although Raymond has now a choice over his acts whenever he felt provoked, he seemed â€Å"tied†to the responses his mother made years ago, thus displaying the same behavior (Bandura, 1986).            â€Å"Motivation.†The observer must have some reason, reinforcement, or incentive to perform the model’s behaviors. Raymond must probably feel that the â€Å"pinching†is justifiable and quite normal because that was what he’d experienced with his mother. When he felt being provoked by the girlfriend, the physical reaction could have been a natural consequence to him (Bandura, 1986).            The major theories presented here have helped us understand the kind of behavior that the person in the scenario was doing towards the girl. Theories have their way of making us comprehend things, situations and behavior better. Because of this, we are able to make necessary adjustments, and lessen potential conflicts at the very least. It allows us also the opportunity to gain insights on the way people behave, what makes them tick, or what sets them off. A key element in Human Motivation involves one’s ability apply existing knowledge to a problem. We call this creativity. Your text actually provides a process of creativity. Your task is to: Delineate a real-life problem associated with your work or something you have experienced. You must define this problem completely. Make yourself a disinterested observer and omit no detail. Synthesize the data. DeBono (1970, 1987) terms this process â€Å"finding redundancies†and calls it lateral thinking. You are going to identify patterns in your scenario. This is the heart of the creative process. Then, you will suspend judgment; leave your opinions of the situation out of the process. Think of this as a game and devise at least three (3) options for your scenario. Last, explain how motivation is linked in each of the options.             The real-life problem that is to be explored here has something to do with two colleagues who play â€Å"serious†parts or roles in the dynamics of office work. Their mutual animosity has exceeded civility that it has engulfed us their co-workers, and even each of our respective families. Whenever they are around, all of us have to make sure that no favoritism is shown to any. Nevertheless, it is precisely this stance that further places the rest of us in trouble. One of the antagonists, let’s call him Troy â€Å"the Rat†, is the senior of the rest of us who are in this department. His archenemy, whom he name-calls as the â€Å"trying-hard to look like tough†guy, we call Bart. Bart is not your typical officemate also. He is not the very outspoken and gregarious, happy-go-lucky person nor the touchy type. But he knows malice if he meets one. Their problem is already more than ten years old. They have had their f irst series of encounters that ended up in lawsuit. Their relationship didn’t improve, expectedly, after that period. This time around, the matter between them was revived and had escalated with another series of lawsuits. I was caught in the middle of this conflict as much as the others in the department. Troy â€Å"the rat†wanted us to take his side to pin Bart down saying that the latter was a malicious person bent on destroying a reputable colleague whose work and influence had made contributions though not as much as that of Troy. Bart, on the other hand, was knowledgeable about the manipulations and tongue wagging unimaginable in the military that Troy had been doing all these years to put Bart outside the â€Å"group,†or the inner circle in the institution where he had been â€Å"first.†In my judgment, though Bart had lapses of his own, I have not encountered nor observed him as a person who had as much malevolence as Troy. Both had wanted anyon e of us in the department to sympathize and rally to either of their â€Å"causes,†and overtly, not one of us showed to the rest of the institution that we had taken sides. However, privately, we had our sympathies for Bart because his clout is not that extensive as Troy; Bart’s fight was just almost always to defend himself in the wake of the accusations that Troy had tried to hurl against him. ~Synthesize the data. DeBono (as cited in Franken, 2007) terms this process â€Å"finding redundancies†and calls it lateral thinking. You are going to identify patterns in your scenario. This is the heart of the creative process.            The whole scenario with Troy, Bart and the rest of us in the department embroiled in the dispute reached its peak just a few months ago. Recently, Troy because of his belief that we were not deeply supportive of him, accused the whole department of conspiracy against him. Although he had the appearance of respectability, Troy however, is a very good â€Å"actor,†who plays his part well. Because his accusation of conspiracy was not effective, he tried other ways. Through text messages and sarcasm he began to intimidate each of us personally and privately. He somehow managed to know some important details or weaknesses in each of us to weaken us down. Members of our department were at our lowest point in the working relationship and morale within the workplace. It was a very difficult time.            The problem with these two colleagues did not just start with any one of them as individuals although their idiosyncrasies and even their personal, family or private lives are surely crucial factors in the dynamics of office work. Looking at the whole dilemma from start to the more recent clashes, Troy and Bart’s conflict which now involved us, was firstly, a leadership responsibility. If then, during the early times that those who oversee the department had keen understanding of people’s behavioral inclinations or types, who cared enough to address the early signs of trouble that arises in a specific workplace, and had the decisive facility to impose certain boundaries and discipline either or both of them and those involved then, this was surely a thing of the past. What the person (Troy or Bart) was certainly has bearing in whatever will continue to develop in future relationships, responsibilities, and possible frictions that normally are present in any work setting. ~Then, you will suspend judgment; leave your opinions of the situation out of the process. Think of this as a game and devise at least three (3) options for your scenario. Discipline both Troy and Bart. Impose sanctions for the way the conflict between them had been allowed to escalate. Probably suggest suspension, leave of absence for a definite period of time so the whole office can breathe. Because I am not the department head, a meeting is to occur (or a series of meetings) just for the sole purpose of brainstorming on the viable alternatives to restore the two to a more civil relationship. If they will not acquiesce to what will be decided by the group, then everyone in the department will make a resolution to recommend the two for further investigation by the institution’s disciplinary council and even propose their dismissal should they not accede to the department/institution’s guidelines or decisions. Leave them to fight their battles between them because they are adults and can fend for each of themselves. ~ Last, explain how motivation is linked in each of the options. The implications for option one is that when there is outright or decisive action to make the two answerable for the fiasco will provide a sharp curb to their ongoing hostility. In understanding human nature, when a person’s ego is touched with matters that the case between Troy and Bart will be exposed as behaving like children and needed to be out rightly disciplined, it will unmask their vulnerability to society’s approval and disapproval. This is based on Affiliation motive, and what they will lose is Esprit de corps-the feeling of being part of a sympathetic group, only this time, not just one of them will stand lose it, but the both of them (Morris & Maisto, 1999, p.318) This has something to do with Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. What will happen here is to make the threat of losing years of hard work and establishment of a career in one institution to end up in disgrace because then, the two should have been dismissed for the trouble they brought to the whole department. In Maslow’s theory, if everything that mattered to any of them is pulled under them, then they will think deep with how they will have to make compromises in order that their source of livelihood (Maslow’s first level Physiological needs) will be at stake. Secondly, when their sense of esteem is also threatened, then they will be pushed to think through with pulling down not only each other, but also the others in the workplace (Morris & Maisto, 1999, p.317) A sense of acceptance for many pervades whenever clashes between people who seemed to be influential, quite strong and resistive to advices, and who have made up their minds as to the recourse they were taking. It is to understand that people have what psychology calls as Aggression motive. Some experts on human behavior look at this particular trait or behavior as an inherent force within people that is intended to be redirected to more positive or beneficial outcomes (Morris & Maisto, 1999, p.319) Conclusion            Essentially, the role of motivation in a person’s life is crucial to the understanding of human activities. Motivation is never static because in life, there always presents a dynamic and changing pattern of needs. Internal and external motivation provides in brief, an astute way of explaining the â€Å"why’s†of people’s behaviors. No wonder then, that in general, educators handle pupils or learners in the light of this ideation.  Bibliography Atkinson, Rita L., Richard C. Atkinson, and Ernest R. Hilgard. 1983. Introduction to Psychology. 8th ed., New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc. Das, Enny Henrica Helena Johanna . 2001. How fear Appeals Work: motivational biases in the processing of fear-arousing health communications. www.library.uu.nl/digiarchief/dip/diss/1975035/inhoud.htm. Franken, Robert E. Human Motivation, 6th ed. King, N. 1970. Clarification and evaluation of the two-factor theory of job satisfaction. Psychological Bulletin, 74, 18-31. Lazaro, P. M. Palma, BB. Azcona, P. Cardona, N. Chinchilla, 2000. From individual motivation to organizational compensation: the physician’s perspective. Annu Meet Int Soc Technol Assess Health Care Int Soc Technol Assess Health Care Meet. 2000; 16: 224. Health Services Research Unit, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain; International School of Business, Barcelona, Spain. Accessed September 21, 2007 http://gateway.nlm.nih.gov/MeetingAbstracts/102271882.html Llewellyn, David J. 2003. The Psychology of Risk Taking. Accessed in www.risktaking.co.uk. Marx, Melvin H. 1976. Introduction to Psychology: Problems, Procedures, and Principles. Columbia: Collier MacMillan. Morris, Charles G., Maisto, Albert A., 1999. Understanding Psychology.4th ed., Prentice Hall: New Jersey, pp.315-316. Random House Webster’s Dictionary. 2001. 4th Ed., Ballantine Books, New York. Sandman, Peter M., JoAnn M.Valenti. 1986. Scared Stiff – or Scared into Action..   Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.New York. P.12-16 accessed in         www.psandman.com Smith, Ronald E., Sarason, I.G., and Sarason, B.R. 1982. Psychology: The Frontiers of Behavior.2nd Ed. New York: Harper and Row Publishers. ______ . 2007. Employee motivation, the organizational environment and productivity. ACCEL. Accessed Sept. 21, 2007 _______. 2007. Organizational Motivation. Chapter 4.Accessed Sept. 21, 2007.
Saturday, January 11, 2020
Agricultural Contributions of George Washington Carver in US
George Washington Carver was born a slave in Diamond Grove, Missouri. As a small child Carver was rescued from a band of Confederate kidnappers. From early on Carver was determined to get himself an education. Carver began his schooling in Newton Country, and while attending school he also worked very hard as a farm hand. While working and studying Carver lived in a one-room schoolhouse, and as time went on he excelled as sought out for higher education. Because of his race Carver was denied on attending Highland University. In 1887 Carver got excepted to Simpson College in Indianola, Iowa. Carver made many outstanding contributions to the agricultural world and also on America it†s self. Carver changed the face of Agriculture in the south with his crop rotation methods. Carver discovered through research and trail and error ways to help soil stay fertile. Through this discovery the nutrients would stay in the ground, and crops could be planted on the same soil year after year. Carver discovered that planting peanut one year then the next planting cotton would keep the soil fertial for the following year. The peanuts contained nitrate-producing legumes, and the cotton took all the nutrients from the soil, so the soil was fresh each planting season. The farmer took his peanuts and used them as a source of food for their livestock. Carver did not over look the peanuts as just food for animals, and found over 325 ways to use the peanuts for other reasons than food. He used peanuts to make peanut butter, cooking oil, printer ink, and many more useful applications for the peanut. Carver being the introvator that he was also found many ways for the pecan and sweet potato to help the soil. Carver developed many synthetic products that could be used by all people and not too hard to make. Carver developed adhesives, bleach, cheese, instant coffee, syntheic rubber, and Worcestershire souce just to name a few. Carver†s crop rotation method did change American agirculture forever. What Carver found out through study helped America today become the world†s top producing nation of agricultural goods. Carver also did not just change agriculture for America, but also changed the way that people looked at the African American. Carver received many awards and prizes during his lifetime, but he always gave the credit to the lord.
Friday, January 3, 2020
The Role of Feminism in the Secret Life of Bees - 857 Words
Mary McGill Ms. Bond English II 5/4/13 The Role of Feminism in The Secret Life of Bees In Sue Monk Kidd’s novel The Secret Life of Bees, the theme of feminism often reoccurs. Throughout the novel, Kidd reveals the aspects and importance of feminine power and matriarchy versus the typical role of masculine leadership and authority. The teachings of Carl Jung, a philosopher who believes that society would be better by emphasizing the importance of feminine values versus the masculine, deeply influences Kidd’s writings. These principles are greatly displayed in the plot and theme of The Secret Life of Bees. Lily’s desire for a mother, and the importance of having a mother, as well as Kidd’s portrayal of strong†¦show more content†¦Most importantly The Secret Life of Bees is loaded with colorful and strong female characters. For example, Rosaleen’s stubborn attitude and refusal to back down to anyone contradicts typical expectancy for women to sit back and take the treatment men give them, especially for colored women in the sixties. When a group of white males attempt to stir upShow MoreRelatedThe Effect of Feminism on So ciety816 Words  | 3 Pagestoday women need to take a stand for what they are worth. Many of these strong willed women that are looking for change are leading characters in movies or novels. One book that truly captures the feminist movement and strong women would be The Secret Life of Bees by Sue Monk Kidd. In this novel Lily Owens and the Boatwright sisters present the strong woman figure that is known to embody the feminist movement. All throughout the history it has been known that women are not in the social rankings withRead MoreTheres No Place Like Home812 Words  | 4 Pagescomprehension of a story is largely dependent on the inclusion of accounts from the author s own life and experiences. In Sue Monk Kidd s The Secret Life of Bees, David Guterson s Snow Falling on Cedars, and Jhumpa Lahiri s Interpreter of Maladies, diaspora makes it difficult for the characters to assimilate to the new customs and moral convictions of each new environment. In her novel, The Secret Life of Bees, Sue Monk Kidd uses her own childhood to mold the story of her main character, Lily. TheRead MoreAuthor Sue Monk Kidd’S Famed Novel, The Secret Life Of1885 Words  | 8 Pages Author Sue Monk Kidd’s famed novel, The Secret Life of Bees, chronicles the story of a young girl Lily in the summer of 1964, as she escapes her abusive and dreadful past to find love and acceptance among a group of eccentric African American beekeepers. The novel centers around one of the most racially divided periods to occur since the Civil War, and shows how it affected not only African Americans, but young, impressionable white children like Lily. The author addresses the inhumanity of racism
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